Contenu du sommaire : Les fonctionnaires et la politique dans les pays de l'Union européenne.

Civil Servants Politicisation in France : Obstacle or Necessity ? The administrative question is today, once more, a political question of prime importance. In this respect, it is appropriate to measure the distance which will henceforth separate us from the technocratic republic or from the power of the state which appear to have characterised the Fifth Republic so far. The public sector is feeling the effects of politicisation, which makes a wholesale reform impossible. Equally impossible is, however, a variable geometry of public administration which would open up the field to disputes.

Politics, Civil Servants and Administrative Legitimacy in Germany. Civil servants, as guarantors of the public interest, are supposed to act as a counterweight to changing and unstable political powers. However, civil servants' autonomy with respect to political power permits collaboration at the federal level between civil servants and political actors. The extent of politicisation ranges from patronage to political professionalism and is on the increase due to the nature of decision-making procedures and to European integration.

Austria : a Politicised Civil Service Losing its Influence. The Austrian civil service presents several distinctive features which are rarely found in other countries. Austrian history demonstrates that, for a long time, a close relationship has been maintained between the civil service and politics. Study of this relationship reveals to what extent civil servants' membership of a political party could influence their career. It leads in particular to the question of whether or not political affiliation limits civil servants' freedom of action.

Administration and Politics in Italy : Contradictory Rationales. In Italy, the history of the relationship between politics and administration is marked by substantive contradictions between the principle of ministerial responsibility and that of administrative impartiality. Successive reforms of the public dirigenza sought to reconcile these two rationales and to fight against the structural immobility and functional marginalisation of the highest level administration. The introduction of a majority system makes the need for counterbalances increasingly necessary, amongst which the most important is surely the guarantee of a non-partisan administration.

Bureaucracy and Politics in Portugal. The Portuguese political System, because of its history, particularly its colonial background, has developed along the lines of an administrative state. The dictatorial regime of 1926-1974 enhanced the rationalisation of this system where political action was carried out at the heart of the administration. For reasons of political instability the period following the 1974 revolution did not change things. It is only when the government was able to secure a majority and undertook administrative reforms that the political powers carved out a sphere of action beyond the administration. Since 1985 the power of bureaucracy has consequently diminished, however, as is shown by the Socialist Party's victory in 1995, civil servants exert a key influence in electoral and trade union matters.

Politics and Administration in Spain : Historical Continuity and Future Perspectives. In opposition to the political upheavals which Spain has undergone in her recent history, stands a certain stability of the politico-administrative system. During the time of Franco, the absence of public debate contributed to the complete transfer of politics into the sphere of bureaucracy. Organised into “corps” , the elite benefited from rights and special privileges and succeeded in making itself indispensable by preventing the development of alternative structures. This historical heritage has proved difficult to challenge since the transition towards democracy. Reforms aimed at the professionalisation of the administration have not yet succeeded in depoliticising it.

The Sirens of Politicisation : Civil Service and Politics in Greece. In Greece, the grip of those in political power upon the civil service is a permanent feature of a system which has been discredited by its excesses in this area. The denunciation of politicisation has henceforth become an obligatory theme in all oppositional discourse but has only been translated into practice by a number of limited and isolated developments. Rather than restricting political interventions, which inevitably come up against old habits of networking and patronage, the tendency has been towards strengthening the independence of civil servants by providing it with the necessary tools to secure this end.

Politicisation of Bureaucracy in Belgium : Towards a New Culture ? In Belgium, the depoliticisation of bureaucracy, while still desired, has yet to be realised. Civil servants, despite displaying a degree of reticence towards engagement with the world of politics, are nonetheless required to involve themselves by necessity, particularly as regards questions of promotion and appointment. Their political role remains small however. Budgetary reforms and reforms aimed at halting the decline in confidence in the Belgian political system are modifying these relations. Interaction between the two parties is on the increase. Civil servants' engagement in politics ought to diminish as their role in adopting public policies increases. The depoliticisation of appointments is an essential condition for restoring citizens' confidence in the political system.

Politicisation of British Civil Service : Ambitions, Limits and Conceptual Problems. During the period in which the Conservative government was in power, there was no increase in the political activities of British civil servants who remain independent from any overt political activity. On the other hand, the period is characterised by systematic tendencies aimed at limiting the autonomy of civil servants and at assuring their obedience. This politicisation occurred in accordance with criticism emanating from Conservative quarters and followed a three-stage strategy : first, Conservatives undertook to reduce the influence and autonomy of the civil service, then a reform of its organisational and ideological culture was undertaken, and finally political control over civil servants was reaffirmed.

Politicisation or Politics as Usual : the Netherlands. The 'pillar' structure of Dutch society favours the practice of compromise and the search for consensus. These characteristics are to be found in the relations between politics and administration. The expansion of public activities has forced politicians to abandon a proportion of their powers in favour of high level civil servants who have woken up to the political dimension of their function. Although the political, administrative and social elite acts as a single entity, these three branches retain their distinctive positions ; the differentiation between political and administrative competence is still utilised.

Danish Civil Servants and Policy-Making. The tradition of the Danish civil service, a product of its historical heritage, is one of impartiality and independence with respect to political power. The recruitment of several political counsellors on the basis of their affiliation to a political party has not changed this broad picture but has brought about a number of developments. The domination of lawyers at the highest level has created a space for their association with economists and political scientists, reinforcing the capacity for policy making. Ministers will henceforth play a more active role of initiation at the heart of an increasingly competitive organisation.

Depoliticised, Repoliticised or Simply Political ? The Case of Sweden. It is hard to measure the degree of politicisation of the Swedish civil service. On the one hand, like any civil service, it is, due to its very role in society, political. On the other hand, the existence of political tendencies in civil servants in no way constitutes proof of politicisation one way or another to be measured from an individual and institutional point of view. The Swedish institutional system seems to be a defence against general politicisation and probably contributes towards checking the influence of the new public management.

Bureaucracy and Politics in Finland : From an Aristocratic Elite to Middle Class Policy Network. Up until the end of the 19th century, the civil service was in the hands of an aristocratic elite. Russian domination, followed by independence, called the aristocratic privileges into question by introducing new criteria as regards qualifications for access to the civil service. This development has been characterised by the increase in overall cohesion of the civil service. Furthermore, the evolution of the economic climate has reduced politicians' margin for manoeuvre and the powers of bureaucracy have as a result been reinforced.