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Language fetishism Language fetishism is based upon double developmental amnesia : amnesia in regard to the social conditions which produce linguistic distinction as well as the belief in the absolute value and entire legitimacy of this "natural distinction" ; amnesia in regard to the social conditions which generate conform producers and recepters and, by this, disregard of the system of differences which is fundamental to the profits of distinction offered by the mastery of the legitimate language. Linguistics mask the question of the social conditions of obtaining legitimate competence in language. This does not mean however that linguistics do not reply to this question. One of two explanations is usually offered : either this competence is described as common "treasure" which can be appropriated by particular person under unspecified conditions ; or else under the cover of the criteria of "grammaticality", linguistic competence becomes that which is measured only by grammarians. Linguistics tend to reduce the universe of different utilizations to that of only one particular utilization of language the "correct utilization" ; that is to say, the dominant utilization as well as the utilization to which the dominant members of society put this language. Because this language is not clearly recognized as that of the dominant members of society it becomes all the more legitimate. In this way linguistics incorporate within scientific theory the social operation of universalizing the particular and naturalizing the arbitrary which is the source of legitimacy of the "correct utilization". Thus this particular means of expression is seen to be universally accessible and required. The social conditions of legitimate language production are fundamental in understanding the properties and specific effects of language. Moreover, it is necessary to understand the social mechanisms which bring about the same effects by guaranteeing the reproduction of the structure of distribution between classes of the knowledge and the use of the legitimate language. These same mechanisms guarantee at the same time the reproduction of the market in which legitimate linguistic products receive their full value and also guarantee the need for these written or spoken products and the need for those who produce them : writers (private or public) or speakers. 101 domaines professionnels considérés, la loi des progrès techniques et du perfectionnement de l'organisation impose aux entreprises de lutter de rapidité avec leurs concurrentes. Il faut donc supprimer très vite les pratiques devenues obsolètes, leur substituer les méthodes les plus rentables, malgré l'inertie et les résistances du milieu social qui s'est identifié à ces pratiques. Les fils des familles industrielles ont la possibilité de réussir ce bouleversement : - à l'école, en France ou à l'étranger, ils ont pu se familiariser avec les nouvelles méthodes ; - leur position sociale, enfin, diminue de beaucoup les risques de cette sorte d'opération : ils sont disposés à bien des audaces qui, pour d'autres, seraient des folies. Il se trouve qu'en plus ils auront là une occasion privilégiée de réaliser leur ascension rapide vers les pos- tes de direction : l'intérêt de l'entreprise coïncide idéalement avec leur intérêt personnel. Si le processus dont nous venons d'esquisser la description se révélait avoir quelque portée générale, il aurait une valeur explicative utile dans l'étude de l'idéologie de la compétence, et surtout dans l'étude des lois de déclenchement et de développement des stratégies de réforme dans les appareils bureaucratiques industriels. La validation de ces notations supposerait bien entendu que d'autres exemples permettent de faire varier les cas de figure et d'explorer les limites assignées aux stratégies de dépassement (par exemple les cas où le fils de famille doit quitter l'institution ou même s'imposer par une sorte de "coup de force"). Il conviendrait enfin de rendre compte des cas (sans doute assez rares) où des'cadres originaires de la petite ou de la moyenne bourgeoisie parviennent, individuellement ou en groupe, à suivre une carrière rapide et à forte amplitude. english summaries LANGUAGE FETISHISM Language fetlshism is based upon a double developmental amiie-sia : amnesia in regard to the social conditions which produce linguistic distinction as well as the belief in the absolute value and entire legitimacy of this "natural distinction" ; amnesia in regard to the social conditions which generate conform producers and recepters and, by this, disregard of the System of différen- ces which is fondamental to the profits of distinction oftered by the mastery of the legitimate language. Linguistics mask the question of the social conditions of obtaining a legitimate compétence in a language. This does not mean however that linguistics do ■ not rcply to this question. One of two explanations is usually offcred : either this compétence is described as a common "treasure" which can be appropriated by a particular person under unspecified conditions ; or else, under the cover of the criteria of "grammaticality", linguistic compétence becomes that which is measured only by grammarians. Linguistics tend ■ to reduce the universe of différent utilizations to that of only one particular utilization of a language, the "correct utilization" ; that is to say, the dominant utilization as well as the utilization to which the dominant members of a society put this language. Because this language is not clearly recognized as that of the dominant members of society, it becomes ail the more legitimate. In this way linguistics incorporate within a Bcientific theory the social opération of universalizing the particular and naturalizing the arbitrary which is the source of legitimacy of the "correct utilization". Thus this particular means of expression is seen to be universally accessible and required. The social conditions of legitimate language production are fundamental in understanding the properties and spécifie effects of a language. Moreover, it is necessary to understand the social mechanisms which bring about the same effects by guaranteeing the reproduction of the structure of distribution between classes of the knowledge and the use of the legitimate language. Thèse same mechanisms guarantee at the same time the reproduction of the market in which legitimate linguistic products receive their full value and also guarantee the need for thèse written or spoken products and the need for those who produce them : writers (private or public) or speakers.

The expansion and crisis in the literary field between 1865 and 1900 A quantitative study of the literary market in France between 1865 and 1900 has shown a tremendous increase in the number of titles produced, the quantity of best sellers printed, and the size of the reading public. But towards the end of the 1880's and throughout the 1890's, this expansion gave way to a crisis of overproduction. This expansion can be explained by such social transformations related to the industrial revolution such as increased secondary education. The crisis itself is a result of the expansion ; too many intellectuals drawn into this market wrote too many books for the market to absorbe. The reading public ceased to increase at the same high rate. The number of person with secondary education levelled off. While production slowed, the number of writers continued to increase. Since the more lucrative formes (novels and plays) were those in greatest difficulty, the social situation of the writer declined all the more. This crisis accounts for the particular character of the field of literary endeavour during this period : the splintering of groups, the manifestos, the pole mies, the duals, the aberrant strategies, the conversions and reconversions of a religious, literary, political, or social nature, and, during the Dreyfus affair, even the birth of the "intellectual", claiming his own political autonomy.

The birth of the psychological novel The appearance of the French psychological novel between 1880 and 1890 corresponds to a certain strategy of reconversion. This strategy should be seen in relation to the economic situation of the different literary forms and their position in the hierarchy of legitimacy. Grouped round Paul Bourget we find a collection of writers who had left to the way-side the encumbered though prestigeous field of poetry. They preferred the genre novel which was then in full expansion but often considered to be a less noble literary form. They endeavoured to elevate the status of their new field of activity by imposing the utilization of schemes borrowed from the psychology of Taine which was a dominant intellectual factor of the epoch. The consecration by these writers of this literary form is due to the importance of their social and cultural capital. As a consequence, the naturalist novel produced by writers of lower middle class origin was relegated to an inferior position in the hierarchy of literary forms.

The unclassable farmer Property owners owned by their property ; bosses who only boss themselves ; workers who, instead of selling their work, sell the products of their work ; farmers are never completly different from, nor entirely similar to the other social categories in relation to which one tries to define them. As farmer demonstrations have shown, the relationship of domination, which exists ordinarily between classes, exists in another sense within the farmer himself, dividing his time, his activities, and, in sum, dividing him against himself.

Die philosophische Schirmherrschaft uber die Sozialherferinnen Auf die Kongresse der Nationalen Organisation der Sozial-helferinnen werden seit 1945 bekannte Universitatsprofessoren, "eminente" hohe Staatsbeamte und politische Persönlichkeiten eingeladen. Den Sinn dieser Beteiligung kann man erkennen, wenn man die Vorträge dieser Personen mit den offiziellen Stellungnahmen vergleicht : das Bild des Unpolitischen und des rein technischen Konnens, das die ANAS von sich geben will, dient nur dazu, jenen realen Prozess zu verschleiern, durch den die herrsehende Ideologie in ihrer katholischen Form durch-gesetzt wird.