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SUMMARY At the present time in Western European countries and specially in France and in England rates of wages are made up if not for totality at least for principal after having been discussed on national scheme between the great employers associations and labour associations under official or semi-official state arbitration 10 recall of causes explaining the fact reactions which occured in France when French Government failed to recognize the fact Act of February llth 1954 Case of Great Britain the purpose of this research is to draw the inferences from tli is central fact on tliu theory of wages and of income distribution Necessity tu extend notion of wages Although particular factors can bring on innueiiLu upon directs wages or social transfers some general factors appear which have an effect upon total labour remuneration Examination of two late circumstances in which the phenomenon appears obvious Study of evolution of total wages amount in France from 1938 to 1951 Policy follows by Frendi government in 1954 in order to create rise of total labour wages Theorical inferences to draw connection of process of primary distribution with re-distribution Tull of theory of income distribution II Necessity of analizing the behaviour of different social groups Recall of the fact tliat on monopoly market or on bilateral oligopoly market mechanism of determination of price.- depends tightly on behaviour of the parties to the case Meaning of wages for the parties to the case Wages regarded as buying power by labourers Measures by which labourers can compel the other parties to ta ke their point of view into consideration Position of entrepreneurs who regard wages as cost They are led to introduce general price level as variable of the theory of wages Conseciuences for theory of income distribution Determination of specifically economic factors whicih have an effect upon dividing national income between the different groups of parti cipants Determination of social factors standard of living regarded as being v.-fll-founded and professional migration Application on French experiment

SUMMARY - How will general autonomous increase in the money wage rate affect prices and tlie real wage level This problem is examined within the formal framework of macro-model iu iwhich the wage rate is considered as an autonomous variable at the disposal of the labour unions or determined by collective bargaining agreements the price level can then by eli mination of all other variables be expressed as function of The elas ticity of this function is one measure of the effect on of change in The classical labour market model determines real wages and employment simultaneously Removing the labour supply equation from this model In order to allow wage rate changes we are left with the labour demand iluatiuu subject to II the macro-production function Illi ff- being free variable For given however this model is still indeterminate since employment cannot be expected priori to be unaffected we have to consider more complete macro-model which talies into account repercussions on via employment In the simple classical macro-model equations VII 579 rise in will increase less than proportionally and decrease provided that the supply of money is kept constant In the Keynesian system eqs VII 582 change in the wage rate will have no effect on employment if is manipulated so as to keep the rate of interest constant we have == i.e. real wages cannot be Influenced by autonomous wage rate changes If instead of is kept constant repercussions via investment will somewhat increase the real wage level Taking the Keynesian equations one by one we nolw consider how the results are affected if the assumptions are modified in various ways In particular it is shown that the presence of imperfect competition and non- labour elements in marginal costs imports excises etc.) have decreasing effect on thus enabling the workers to benefit from wage rate mani pulations This result is now confronted with empirical findings The marginal wage quota for total production in Denmark is estimated to be which may be taken as an approximation of computation within Tinber- decision model for the Dutch economy gives price-wage-elasticity of almost equal to the marginal wage quota estimate for the Netherlands input-output model gives == 63 or 37 according as to whether profit margins change proportionally to the labour cost or not No conclusive results could be obtained from the available time series of wages and price data Finally it is shown in simple dynamic model how the introduction of automatic wage adjustments according to changes in the price level makes it possible for the workers to obtain the full benefit of the money wage increase unless and the system is unstable

SUMMARY The pure theory of international trade has been for nearly 150 years steadily growing up thanlks to widening of the conditions laid down by Ricardo However the author believes that the concept of national gain from international trade is too obscure and cannot pretend to rea listic explanation of the facts The division of gain has been generally studied by distinguishing the traditionnal factors of production It does not appear that thia approach has been fruitful It seems preferable to start from the concept of economic groups This paper tries to define these and to give classification each group has its own interests and attitude on such questions of international trade as protectionnism exchange rate policy and economic unions They trie to influence the economic policy of their national State or even of foreign States Many examples are taken from recent facts and show that the division of the gain from trade is the result of great number of confron tations not always pacific where coercition plays very important role Practically the groups and their governments trie to maximise the eco nomic welfare as it is understood by the dominant groups

In what measure have the fiscal systems of the countries of the Middle Last a redistributive meaning, in what measure do they reduce the pur chasing power of higher income groups relatively to that of the lower income groups. Before the Second World War fiscal laws were indirect and regressive they accentuated the inequality in the social structure by favoring the beneficiaries of higher income groups landowners mill owners merchants and by affecting the poor classes of the population the workingman and the wage earner). The fiscal laws after the War by introducing income taxes are orientating themselves towards direct assessment and progressive tax system. Even so this new orientation has not given all the results hoped for for it neglects to take into consideration geographic economic and social structures of the Mille East. Thus the agricultural population pratically exempt from every burden and the merchants and mill owners are still burdened at the same level to which they were subject before the institution of the income taxes. And one can in that case wonder if it be not better to be free of the recent legislation inspired by the West and to take a stand on renewed indirect taxes export taxes customs duties consumption taxes with multiple rates which serve for stricter relationship with the economic and social environment of the Middle East

SUMMARY August 194& the fare on the Paris underground railway was substan tially increased for the buyer- of one ticket at time but no change was made in the price of the book of five ticket;- perfect example of pure economie discrimination aud differential demand was thus afforded iu making the same transportation service available ro everybody at two different prices Sales of tickets one by ue showed au immediate sharp decime while the ticker book maintained irs average sales level despite the downward trend of underground traffic The above response clearly indicates that the concept of the economic man acring in his self-interest which again has been undergoing heavy criticism still has validity and should not be too lightly dismissed either in economic theory or iu the making of economic decisions