Contenu du sommaire : Agricultures de firme. 2. Délocalisation et évictions

Incompatible Agricultural Systems in the Inner Niger Delta of Mali?
The Inner Niger Deltais one of the areas most affected by the wave of large-scale land acquisitions currently sweeping through West Africa, with evidence suggesting that between 400,000 and 700,000 hectares of land may already have been allocated in the form of concessions of up to 100,000 hectares. Land grabbing is becoming increasingly common and takes many forms, with recent projects involving different types of investors and a wide range of objectives. Recent developments suggest that the practice lacks coherence and direction. In particular, it would appear that very little attention has been given to the question of water resource sustainability. In theory, only “vacant and derelict land” can be made available to investors and developers. However, in practice, land grabbing projects have tended to coexist with existing production systems organized around the rice-growing area of the Office du Niger. The relationship between large-scale agriculture and small-scale peasant agriculture is increasingly unequal and imbalanced, raising the question of the ability of small family farmers to resist and adapt to their changing environment.

Land Concessions and Social Dynamics in the Office du Niger Area of Mali
Since the early 2000s, many African countries have been looking for new sources of capital to compensate for the reduction in public development expenditure. In Mali, the government is currently seeking to expand the largest area of irrigated land in West Africa in the Office du Niger area. Despite these efforts, the amount of developed land remains insufficient. In an effort to increase the amount of irrigated land, the authorities have turned toward public, private, national and foreign investors. Although the current legal framework is relatively flexible, many of the actors involved in land use and development, from the state to rural communities, are increasingly engaging in dubious and illegal practices. Illegal transactions are becoming increasingly common, and very few investors appear to have complied with the established procedures. Evidence suggests that the race for land has both changed the role of the actors involved in land use and development and redefined the relationships between them. The new dynamics of land use have also impacted the social sustainability of planning and development.

Unexpected Changes in a Madagascan Land System through Agribusiness
What is the impact of the introduction of large-scale agribusiness activities on different interest groups in local territories? Are they a cause of inequality and conflict? Or do they simply contribute to the dynamics of change and development? Based on a case study in Madagascar, this paper examines recent changes in the Madagascan land system as a result of the entry of a foreign firm. While the increase in employment has benefited small local producers, the wealthiest livestock farmers have suffered as a result of recent changes in land use and access. The firm has enabled the descendants of the Betsileo to expand their agricultural lands to the detriment of the Sakalava, who see themselves as the rightful heirs to the land. However, land tenure security has become increasingly precarious for all parties involved. In short, the entry of the firm has caused tensions with and between local residents. By signing an emphyteutic lease with the state, the firm has deprived local communities of their land rights. However, in doing so, it may see its own right to use the land challenged by local actors.

Cooperative Farming and Agriculture in Argentina and Uruguay: at the Crossroads of Territories and Networks. Although traditional family farming remains common, the agricultural sectors of Argentina and Uruguay have changed significantly in recent years, largely as a result of the emergence of a new form of cooperative farming incorporating all the resources needed for agricultural production (i.e. land resources, financial resources, subcontracting, and agronomic consulting). Under the new system, land owners entrust the management of their assets to a network-based cooperative association as part of an emphasis on financial performance. The practices of the key actors involved in developing and promoting cooperative farming, but also the established capitalized farmers who rent land near their farms or further afield, have had an impact on their relationship to the land. As a result of these developments, a new form of entrepreneurial agriculture has emerged that illustrates the changing face of territorial embeddedness, as well as the increasingly close relationship between agriculture and urban centers and the increasing detachment from agri-cultural activity per se.

The Location of Agricultural Production in the West of the State of Bahia, Brazil
The western plateaus of the state of Bahia are one of the latest frontiers of agricultural settlement in Brazil. In the 1970s, settlers from the southern states of the Federal Republic seeking for a more open and less restrictive land system began to clear the cerrado and to convert and develop one of the most productive agricultural areas in the country. Over the past decade, the foothills and plateaus of the region have been taken over by large agricultural companies with land holdings larger than the national average. The region has also experienced an influx of agricultural mega-firms. In the existing farms, “family” and “financial capital” have become increasingly intertwined. An analysis of the location of old and new firms and the methods used to establish them (both locally and internationally) will provide a basis for linking the history of land settlement to more global trends. The paper is organized around three key concepts: location, technique and territorialization.

The Changing Structure of Farming and Agriculture in Ukraine
Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991, the agricultural sector of the former Soviet republics has changed dramatically as a result of the emergence of new actors on the international scene. Among these countries, Ukraine, which could potentially double its production within the next few years to reach 100 million tons, is currently seeking to strengthen its status as a major exporter of raw materials and to consolidate its position in the emerging market of the “Black Sea” region. The structure of the Ukrainian agricultural sector is changing rapidly based on a ternary model combining agricultural firms, small family farms and very large firms. Production destined for export is increasingly in the hands of a small number of vertically integrated holdings.

A Geopolitical Perspective on Agribusiness in the Arab World
In addition to the recent political unrest, the Arab world continues to be governed by the constraints of an arid environment which, combined with the effects of a rapid demographic transition, have had a dramatic impact on many countries throughout the region. The apparent homogeneity of the region masks significant differences in terms of agricultural policy. In particular, there is a clear distinction between countries with a rentier economy based on the development and exploitation of hydrocarbon resources (“yellow countries”) and countries with a predominantly agricultural economy (“green countries”). With the exception of Saudi Arabia, this distinction suggests different options in terms of food security. Green countries have tried to reduce their dependence on imports by developing domestic production. By contrast, yellow countries have tended to focus on access to international markets. However, over time, green countries have tended to promote an agricultural system that encourages investors to export their produce rather than ensure national food security, while yellow countries have entered the global market through investments in areas selected on the basis of cultural and geographical criteria. In short, whereas green countries have become passive recipients of agribusiness, yellow countries have become actively involved in promoting the development of agricultural firms. In both cases, there are major social and geopolitical implications.

Living in the Interstices of Firms. Sierra Leone, Cambodia, Chad
The current interest of industrial and agro-industrial firms in the agricultural lands of developing countries has drawn attention to a new kind of geographical space: interstices. Though based on a globalized model in terms of their activities and financial structure, firms seeking to invest in developing countries often create locked-in or enclosed local spaces that are curiously “exempt from ordinary territorial law” – a development that goes against the grain of the idea of openness. As a result, local populations are increasingly being forced to live in the interstices of firms. This paper examines the social and geographical dimensions of this paradox and highlights the weakness and irrelevance of the economic theories underlying it.

Formalizing Customary Rules. Medieval Europe and Colonial and Contemporary Africa
So-called customary rules tend to be oral, local and informal and are generally based on negotiation and consensus rather than established norms and clearly defined procedures. But what happens to legal customs when an attempt is made to formalize them? The purpose of this paper is to answer this question. Particular attention will be given to the regulation of access to and use of land resources. The paper takes a somewhat unusual approach to this issue. Using insights from legal anthropology, history and ethnology, the study examines the ongoing efforts to formalize land rights in West Africa based on a comparison with colonial efforts to define customary land law. The paper also examines the impact of literacy on land management in medieval Europe. The different levels of analysis suggest that introducing a system of codified law and formal land registers has an adverse effect on the ability of ordinary people to participate in defining what is right and what should be done. By contrast, the social groups that bene-fit from the system are those in control of administrative procedures and techniques – i.e. lords, administrators, (urban) businessmen and, today, foreign investors.