Contenu du sommaire : L'action extérieure de l'État. La réforme de l'État en France

The profitability of foreign affairs starts with setting priorities amidst diminishing financial resources. This policy goes hand in hand with investment in the means of communication, delegating services to the private sector, decentralization, usage of local personnel and the quest for self-financing of consular activities. This effort towards improving profitability has already produced results.

Japanese diplomacy stands alone amongst that of industrial nations in benefiting from an increase in resources which has allowed it to face up to the significant proliferation of its needs. This development is accompanied by organisational reform and by reform in the training of diplomats and in the area of cooperation with other public bodies. Nevertheless problems remain such as coordination within the ministry of foreign affairs itself and the coherence of economic and commercial activities.

In France, reform at the Quai d'Orsay, undertaken in 1993, was intended to create a more dynamic diplomatic network by revaluing the role of ambassadors, by utilising means of communication and by making use of posts to carry out background and prospective studies. Particular efforts have also been made to mobilise workers, to reinforce coordination between services and the collegiate functioning of the department. Finally, the sovereignty of the ministry of foreign affairs within the State must be restored through it being attributed once again with the capacity to engage in interministerial activity.

Study of the institutional aspects of foreign policy in France reveals certain weaknesses and malfunctioning. The preponderant role of the President of the Republic, who conducts and determines foreign policy, raises numerous questions. Of particular note is the incompatibility between presidential powers and existing structures concerned with international relations.

The Prophecy of Nesselrode - Reflections upon the Future for the Diplomatic Profession In the past few years, the task of the diplomat has undergone profound modifications linked to changes affecting the diplomatic milieu. Diplomats no longer enjoy a monopoly on foreign policy and new constraints weigh heavily upon the profession. In future, in order to respond to these changes, diplomats must emphasize their general role, master new technologies and open themselves up to dialogue with other actors involved in foreign policy matters.

Developments on the national and international scenes have brought about profound changes to the diplomatic service in Canada. In future the accent will be placed upon trimming down structures and on maximising the use of new technologies. The objective sought is a growth in efficiency without, however, sacrificing the spirit of solidarity which, up until now, has ensured the cohesion of Canadian diplomacy.

The cut-back on continuing education due to budgetary restrictions has meant that the diplomat must learn to adapt to changes in the profession whilst on the job. Of particular note is the decreasing importance of the task of direct negotiation and the increasing development of the tasks of information provision and communication together with the protection of economic interests. Cultural activities are an area which is still too often neglected.

The Department of Economic Affairs is at the service of both the french economy and french diplomacy. Economic and financial diplomacy endeavours to reinforce economic growth and commercial dynamism through the coordination of policies, the support given to exports and the management of international debts. It also aims to promote France's international influence at moments of intervention by the Club of Paris in handling crises and at the heart of international financial institutions.

The association of german chambers of commerce and industry makes use of an extensive network to promote german businesses. This network is both complementary to, and in competition with, the diplomatie network and european networks.

Plurality within the structures in charge of foreign economic activity must be maintained because these structures are complementary. The private sector ought not to be set in opposition to the State sector, nor must diplomats be opposed to those people working in the Department of Economic Affairs. The demands of business with regard to foreign affairs are becoming increasingly specialized, concerning the area of financial aid as much as that of strategic planning and economic data.

After the second world war, italian defence policy was restricted essentially to the defence of national territory with the exception of participation in the operations of the United Nations. During the 1980s Italy freed itself from the constraints imposed by the second world war and intervened in Lebanon. Since then further interventions have allowed the military to gain experience. With the end of the bi-polarisation of the world there is a movement towards what has been called the «renationalisation» of security and defence policies.

The question of european security is too often dealt with from an institutional perspective when it is more suitable to start with analysis of its strategic context. This context has been profoundly modified in recent years. Former «threats» have now become «risks» and the roles of the United States of America and Russia have developed. Different responses are called for to correspond to these changes : possibilities being economic and political responses as well as those concerning defence in the strictest sense of the term.

It is difficult to define the notion of cultural promotion given the diversity of areas intersected by the concept and the way in which the idea has evolved over time. These days the notion is less and less distinguishable from promotion in the areas of commerce, economies and tourism. The use of technology allows a link to be made between the different aspects of cultural promotion and makes it more operable and efficient. The risk of standardization is an important one and, therefore, the right to difference ought to be at the heart of world-wide cultural promotion.

Canadian external cultural activities are considered to make a contribution to the pursuit of Canada's strategic interests abroad. The international market is indispensable in making Canadian cultural products profitable. A further important aspect of foreign affairs is the area of higher education in which international collaboration must be strengthened in years to come.

In France cultural activities abroad are marked by the predominant role of the State. In the last few years, however, this model has undergone an important change which results from two factors. The first is the «relativisation» of the role of the State as an actor in external cultural affairs. This is due to the appearance of new actors. The second factor is the revolution of information technology and communications. The consequences which this revolution has brought about, such as easy access, a market mentality and the development of recreational pursuits, are in direct opposition to the model hitherto imposed by the State. In order to face up to this evolution the State must maintain its presence within the traditional network while at the same time asserting its presence on the new network born as a result of these upheavals.

France's external cultural policy substantially predates its internal cultural policy. This link with the past is at once both beneficial and constraining. While cooperation has been practised for a very long time, the french conception of the notion of cooperation is too unilateral, that is France is giving more than taking. Nowadays the steering of scientific and technical cooperation by the ministry of foreign affairs, through its policy of both close and flexible contacts with the scientific community, has begun to develop a form of cooperation which allows for a more spontaneous manifestation and pursuit of cultural activities.

The objective of british consular policy is to protect british citizens temporarily abroad and not to administer on a day to day basis the expatriate community. Productivity in the services provided is sought, as much from a financial point of view (self-financing through passports) as from a desire to achieve practical results. Productivity depends on obtaining agreement from higher ranks. To these worries over internal productivity one can add the interest in external communications which are harder to control. Communications need to be wholly transparent in order to convince the public of the usefulness and the relevance of the activities engaged upon.

The current policy developed by the consular service is based upon experience acquired during crises which have occurred during the last few decades. These crises have demonstrated the necessity for an increase in the resources of the service and have led to an improvement in staff training and in relationships with the families of victims. The establishment of good relations with these families is done also with the aim of helping the government put into practice policies which may lead to a resolution of the crisis.

Expatriate communities are by their very nature heterogeneous. Consequently they have differing relations with the authorities of their country of origin and may react differently in times of crisis. This is the reason why diplomatie representatives must try to acquire as complete a knowledge as possible of expatriates, to have regular contact with them and to make them aware of potential difficulties. Finally, it is important that close cooperation be established between the various chancelleries abroad.