Contenu du sommaire : Sociologie du bien-être

Subjective well-being in social sciences : birth and growth of a research field
In France, the welfare has long been neglected by social science. The first studies on the “subjective well-being” appeared in the Anglo-Saxon world in the early twentieth century. They take their rise in the inter-war period and a specific research field can be identified in the United States since the early 1960s. The development of such surveys is more recent in France, where researchers take longer to recognize the merits of the subjective studies. In this evolution, we have to emphazise the role of a few social scientists, like Jean Stoetzel. But the more general evolution of norms and values is also responsible for the development of this new research field : without the uprise and the consecration of well-being, there will be no welfare's sociology.

The European Union is struggling with economic challenges and pessimistic future scenarios have the potential to gradually influence societal functioning. Signs of disintegration processes and societal crises perceptions can be explained by contemporary societal conditions, namely rapid transformations (in the context of the European integration policy), rising inequalities within and between European member states and broad insecurities affecting social cohesion. The main aim of this article is to present a concept of how subjective crises feelings can be analyzed and measured in cross-national research based on survey data (using the database of the European Social Survey). The empirical part of the paper provides a first approach to a multidimensional operationalization of subjective evaluations on societal functioning. It is analyzed if the second order construct of societal well-being (including several first order factors) reflects a reliable measurement and can be seen as cross-culturally equivalent across Europe, how the extent of crises perceptions varies between European states and over time and if restrictions in objective living conditions and societal well-being are able to explain ethnocentrism as one potential critical outcome.

Well-being evolution in France during the past 25 years
National wealth measured through the gross domestic product has been for a long time the main indicator of measuring the evolution of well-being. However, critics increasingly emphasize the temptation inherent to this approach to reduce multiple dimensions of quality of life within a unique monetary indicator. On the basis of data from the barometric survey “Living Conditions and Aspirations”, which is led since 35 years by the CRÉDOC in France, this paper aims to paint a picture of the evolution of the different dimensions of well-being of the French population. After exposing the interest of the survey, the methodological principles that have been used, their advantages and limits, we aim to show that improving material living conditions, a rising level of qualifications and a more widespread access to leisure time activities since the last thirty years, did not hinder the sedimentation of a feeling of social and economic insecurity, the proliferation of a certain malaise and the dissemination of inequalities in lifestyle and living conditions. Altogether these elements explain a growing distortion between the GDP and the composite index of well-being.

Subjective well-being and feelings of social justice
It is now commonly accepted that the study of well-being must incorporate a measure of life satisfaction. This satisfaction is studied here using a question asked in a survey conducted in France in 2009 on the perception of inequality and feelings of justice. Subjective well-being then appears to be influenced by income, professional life-course, social mobility and relative deprivation or, more broadly, by comparisons with others, as well as by social and emotional relationships. But there is also a strong correlation with feelings about justice in society as a whole. This association could not be anticipated, since in one case it is a matter of judgment about one's own personal life and, in the other, about society as a whole. However, it may be explained by theories of justice and in particular that of Rawls. It is in any case an explanatory dimension which cannot be reduced to others, even to the mere perception of inequality. For a better understanding of subjective well-being, it would therefore be advisable to take into account this relationship with feelings of social justice beyond all indicators conventionally used.

Happiness, subjective well-being and feelings of social justice in Québec
This article presents the main findings of a study on subjective wellbeing, happiness and social inequalities in the province of Quebec. The study demonstrates that subjective measures of happiness and life satisfaction are not completely interchangeable, although highly correlated. As a case in point, the category of respondents who are happy but unsatisfied characterises a fraction of the middle class and immigrants. It also appears that the well-established relationship between income and wellbeing, which is also observed in this study, cannot be analysed without taking into account the social representations that actors make of their situation. The level of income does not solely determine happiness since its effect is influenced by the sentiment of deprivation as well as personal aspirations. Finally, the study confirms the importance of taking into consideration the sentiment of justice in wellbeing studies, distinguishing between the evaluation of one's personal situation and one's judgement of society as a whole. It shows the pertinence of distinguishing the principles of equity and of equalization of resources. The results of this Quebec study reinforces observations made in France and supports the necessity of taking into account the sentiment of social justice in analyses of wellbeing in developed societies.

Well-being and perceived discrimination in school. an empirical study in a segregated context
This article aims to better understand the mechanisms of well-being at school. In France, few surveys deal with this issue. Yet Meuret and Marivain (1997) have shown that well-being is an important factor to explain educational experience. Following them, we can consider that an unequal distribution of well-being between schools and between classes within schools is a major source of social injustice (Chauprade-Fouquet, 2013). The field survey was conducted in two regional education authorities, Bordeaux and Créteil ; 1350 questionnaires were administered in six schools among the most segregated. In this context, the issue of perceived discrimination is particularly striking, and we assume it explains a good part of well-being at school, even more than the ethnic origin of students (Safi, 2010). This link between perceived discrimination and well-being is probably due to the effect produced on social and educational aspirations. These are the assumptions of this paper, which are only partially verified.

The injunction to well-being in the ageing prevention programmes
Leaning on a heterogeneous corpus consisting of scientific writings and various reports and texts related to the framing of national and international policies, this article first relates the circumstances from which the notion of well-being emerged in ageing prevention policies in the second half of the 20th century. Personal well-being became a target, and the capacity to remain active was presented as the necessary means to achieve this well-being. Nevertheless, under the cover of a will to “capacitate” senior citizens – particularly striking in prevention policies – a model was taking shape which was slightly incriminating because based on an injunction which strongly implied that older people should remain active. Secondly, we bring to light some tensions appearing in this notion of “active ageing”. First of all, summoned to remain active, the elderly feel the responsibility to contribute to the economic well-being of the community. Then, the injunction to remain active tends to impose a standard of well-being that would be identical for everyone. Finally, the will to measure and objectify well-being, whether at the political or the scientific levels, tends to hide the individuals' subjectivity. Thus under the cover of considering aging individuals in a better, more holistic way, and of globally improving their health, the notion of well-being imposes certain standards and practices, and contributes to overshadowing individual and social differences which are the natural consequences of heterogeneous life paths.