Contenu du sommaire : Japon. Nouveaux défis.

The autor presents the "three pillars" of the Japanese system of industrial relations (Life employment, wages according to seniority and company unions) and their historical origins and transformation. He used this presentation as a basis both for criticising the culturalist interpretation of them that is often put forward and to highlight the logics that link them to form a " system " which combines practice and ideology.

Referring to the Anglo-Saxon concept of neocorporatism, the author puts into perspective the recent trends in the Japanese system of industrial relations that have seen the trade unions, most of which are now joined together in RENGO, attempting to play a greater part in political decision-making while at the same time seeking a new identity among wage-earners as a means of guaranteeing their independence, which has proved difficult to wrest from the grip of company "micro-corporatism' ' .

The Japanese system of higher education, which includes large numbers of students and institutions, is faced with internal and external challenges which threaten to intensify its own weaknesses. It is made up largely of private universities (which receive only small state subsidies) and in order to survive they will have to effect the transition from a supplier's to a buyer's market in order to respond better to the aspirations of students and companies in the face of a low birth-rate, the effects of which are just beginning to be felt, and growing internationalisation, mainly of Asian origin.

" White collar university graduates which account for 65 % of total annual flows in Japan (and 85 % in the case of young men) make up the strategic category for companies. The author suggests that their careers might be analysed in terms of a model based on two contrasting types of promotion (" fast track " and " slow track ") that could correspond to two categories of engineers or managers, generalists and specialists. In the West, the former (who constitute the elite) are promoted more rapidly than the latter, while in large Japanese companies promotion is generally slow, which has enabled them to develop a system of on-the-job training through which these graduates acquire broadly-based skills within an extended area of their specialism.

The development of industrial research centres, which has been taking place in Japan since the mid-1980s, is a new challenge for the 21st century and reflects that country's desire for technological independence. And for companies it represents new forms of organisation and management that call into question the classic model of homogeneous treatment for wage-earners. Is it possible to manage highly specialised engineers and researchers in a basic research centre in the same way as generalist managers ? Is the rule of management by seniority still relevant in this case ? The new principles today are "diversification" and " differentiation " instead of " uniformity " and " equality ".

While the characteristics of Japanese high technology production are becoming familiar, less is known of the organisation of the "human networks" that underlie this system, notably those based on RD. The author's examination of these networks is based principally on the semi-conductor industry, where it is particularly important to guarantee continuity of skills and know-how in order to integrate complex technologies and the need for rapid responses to market in order to maintain competitiveness. In particular, this requires a high degree of flexibility and mobility on the part of the work force.

Japanese companies are implementing an ambitious programme of industrial diversification, particularly in those sectors that have reached a certain level of technology maturity. Basing his analysis on the case of the synthetic textiles industry, the author assesses the impact of this diversification on human resource management strategy, particularly as a result of considerable transfers of labour. But how are the new skills required by new products and technologies to be acquired ? Firms are attempting to honour the principle of employment for life by establishing internal training programmes and that of homogeneity of wages, even if it means setting up subsidiaries in which incentive-based management strategies would be introduced. However, the trade union are anxious to maintain " organisational links " between the companies in order to safeguard against the risks of heterogeneity.

The Japanese system of subcontracting is even more complex than is generally thought. From a sometimes cavalier comparative perspective, the author, a spe¬ cialist in the area, reveals the recent trajectories of evolution observed in sectors associated with advanced technologies, particularly in SMEs. The classic trajectory is examined : some subcontractors (who in Japan have virtually exclusive ties with one customer) evolve from their position as sub-assembler, for example, to that of " quasi-manufacturer ". However, other trajectories are emerging : some subcontractors are going so far as promoting their own technologies, in the same way as innovatory SMEs. New industrial networks are also being created that act both as " incubators " for SMEs and a vector for new types of partnership, which looks set to revive the traditional image of " dualism " in this area.

The proposition advanced by the author parallels some recent arguments, now commonly heard, namely that "mechatronics", the symbol of advanced automation, far from having a deskilling effect, requires increasing skill in order to achieve optimum efficiency and functioning. The image of the manual worker becomes a hybrid one, in which the skills of the handyman and artisan are combined. The author follows other commentators in interpreting this trend as the renaissance of the professional worker, although it is acknowledged that adaptation is necessary. However, the conditions for such a " renaissance " are clearly emerging in the case of Japan : extensive training programmes, efficient transfers of information between manual workers and engineers, facilitated by more egalitarian social relationships and the participation of manual workers in the processes of mechatronisation, encouraged in some cases by the establishment by companies of " technological universities ".

The evolution of female participation in waged work in Japan is discussed here from the demographic point of view, particularly with respect to the high rate of ageing in the population, which is itself associated with a declining birth rate and increased life expectancy. The author attempts to link these marked trends to those in the evolution of the female participation rate. The behaviour of Japanese women in this respect is gradually approaching that of their Western counterparts, although it still retains several particular characteristics, such as Japanese women's lack of commitment to the labour market and inequalities in earnings that are even more marked than elsewhere. There are sociological as much as economic or political questions.

The rapid development of the labour market for immigrant workers even though it still officially represents only 1 % of the economically active population, constitutes an important socio — phenomenon for a country that remains committed to the principle of ethnic homogeneity. Rather than reporting on a possible increase in racism phenomenon (which already exists in the case of the Burakumin and Koreans), the author seeks to analyse the stratification of that new labour market on the basis of which he establishes a typology of the Asian countries for which Japan seems, in terms of employment opportunities, like a promised land. Is this the price to be paid for the internationalisation now much touted in Japan ? The government has hitherto sought to exert strict control over what certainly seems to it to be a threat to the uniqueness of a society that, historically and geographically, has been protected.

This article, which is not always easy to read, is presented initially as a reworking of the theory of the modernisation of societies, which has hitherto been based on the development of Western countries. The author's argument is still grounded in Parson's concepts and theoretical perspective, but he puts forward an Asian model of development, of which Japan (apart from a few historical peculiarities) could be the archetype. Without necessarily sharing the assumptions of Parson's theory, which the author uses to good account, the reader will find this exposition valuable for its criticism of culturalist interpretations of the "Japanese model". A return to history is essential in order to highlight the dynamic specific to this country and to understand why cultural characteristics are now being reinterpreted in order to be incorporated into its rationality.