Contenu du sommaire : Le christianisme russe entre millénarisme d'hier et soif spirituelle d'aujourd'hui

André Siniavski, The apotheosis of the book. Ancient Russia venerated books because they were rare and their image was always connected to the Sacred Book, the Bible. Since the Book of depth (Golubinaia kniga) which is a heavenly message in poetical form and till the touching story of Druzhina Osorgin (seventeenth century) on his mother, Saint Ul'ianiia, the ancient Russian book aims at being precise and well-documented. It excludes individual imagination because it constitutes a piece of evidence. The author, as well as the scribe, said prayers at the beginning and the end of the work. Each word and even each letter had a sacred character. The written text was a temple and as such it summarized the universe.

Césare G. de Michelis, The Antichrist in Russian culture and the Protestant idea of "Pope-Antichrist" . Until recent times (for instance in Bukharin's and in Zamiatin's writtings) we can recognize in Russian cultural tradition a number of characteristics that identify the Enemy with the image of the Pope. Naturally, it is possible to go "anticlockwise" along the road of diffusion of this ideological and symbolic form (Lunacharskii, Merezhkovskii, Solov'ev, Dostoevskii, etc.) but it is better to study the history of this idea starting from its origin, in the sixteenth century. In 1582, British merchants presented the tsar Ivan IV with a pamphlet of the Reformed Church on the subject of "Pope-Antichrist" and at the same time, the Orthodox Ruthenians of the Polish Rzeczpospolita adopted this idea for the first time in polemics against the Catholic Church. The two traditions - Muscovite and Ruthenian - produced a common Russian version of the "Pope-antichrist" which, after the reforms of Patriarch Nikon, in the middle of the seventeenth century was taken up again by Old Believers. It was later on applied to Peter the Great. Since the eighteenth century the Russian image of Antichrist has therefore comprised an anti-Papist component of evident Protestant origin that has been preserved till our time.

Maria Rozanova, Icon: canon and portrait. For old Russia, the canon was not a constraint, but the condition of life itself, and specifically that of the icon art. The canonical schemes were called "podlinnik" ("original") and the faithful reproduction of the model explains the popular piety towards the first of holy images, the icon of Savior Acheiropoielos (made by a non human hand). The coexistence of the canon and reality was natural. The inspiration of the iconograph was derived from relics, so that the Russian medieval art is characterized by what can be called "metaphysical realism".

Laura Ronchi De Michelis, Hus and the Hussite movement from the condemnation of heresy to its Slavic re-evaluation in the middle of the nineteenth century. The author points out that until the middle of the nineteenth century, Russian culture remembered only the name of the Czech reformer. Chronicles mention the condemnation of Hus as heretic and in the liturgy of Orthodox Church Hus was anathemized like the reformers of the sixteenth century: Luther and Calvin. In the middle of the nineteenth century, a particular interest was manifested towards Hus, as a Slav - within the general context of the exaltation of the part played by the Slav element in European history. At that time, Hus no longer appears as a heretic, but as a martyr of Orthodoxy who sacrified himself for his Slav brothers.

Andrej Shishkin, Boris Uspenskij, Influence of Jansenism in eighteenth-century Russia: two episodes. The article is devoted to the steps taken by Jansenists from the Sorbonne in Russia. During the reign of Peter the Great, the Jansenists endeavored to introduce a dialogue with the Russian Orthodox Church concerning the union of churches. The numerous autographical variants of "replies" give an idea of the reaction of the Russian clergy to this initiative. An analysis of these texts allows to draw up a picture different from the version accepted by scientists - from Samarin and Chistovich to Winter and Cracraft. The Sorbonne had a new chance to renew its initiative during the reign of Peter II. Influential Russian diplomats and nobles were favorable to the Jansenist endeavors. This also applies to the poet V. Trediakovskii. The part he played in this (which explains many events in his subsequent life) is subjected here to a special investigation.

Efim Etkind, Two spiritual odes by Derzhavin, "God" and "Christ". The destiny of these two Derzhavin's major works forming a poetical dilogy is different: "God" is one of the most famous odes in the world (15 French translations, 10 German, 2 Japanese, etc.); "Christ" was almost never re-edited. This second ode is practically unknown. In the course of the thirty years that separate the two poems Derzhavin drew nearer to linguistical and stylistical ideals of the Academy created at the beginning of the nineteenth century by admiral Shishkov against verbal Westernism, against "Karamzinism", for the aesthetics of the obscure, of the hard to read. Poets like Batiushkov and Pushkin revolt against Derzhavin's poetry of the years 1804-1816. The ode "Christ" can be considered as the manifesto of Shishkov's Academy. The author of the article note the different forms of archaism used by the poet: lexical, phraseological, morphological, syntactic, etc. as well as the means used by Derzhavin to endow his text with maximum difficulty: accumulation of consonants, spondee (succession of stressed syllables), etc. He endeavors to show the theoretical basis of this braking technique, later taken up in the twentieth century by poets such as Viacheslav Ivanov, Khlebnikov, Maiakovskii, Tsvetaeva. Russian poetry was on the look-out for philosophical contents: Shevyrev, Khomiakov, Tiutchev were fighting against light and fluent poetry for the deep and obscure. Derzhavin was the master of these poets-philosophers. The philosophical idea of "Christ" is even more complex than that of "God": Christ is considered as the center and even the unit of the most extreme opposites: omni-power and frailty, divine wisdom and ignorance, matter and spirituality. How is one to speak of it? What is the verbal and rythmic shape of this reflexion? Can one put the unutterable into words? The ode "Christ" deals with the inner man who was the great discovery of Romantism. The ode belongs therefore to the period of romantics as well as to that of the classics of the Russian eighteenth century.

Lucjan Suchanek, Russian Catholics and pro-Catholics in Russia, in the first half of the nineteenth century. Conversion of Russians to Catholicism (openly or clandestinely, in Russia or abroad) should be examined under its religious aspect, but the act of conversion, officially designated in insulting terms: "denaturation into Catholicism" was also a form of evaluation and criticism of Russian spirituality, a reaction to the external religiosity and atheistic tendencies. Conversion to Catholicism was not only a confessional act but also a manifestation of revolt against the State which had subjugated the Church to its authority and against the Church that had become in the eyes of converts a servant of the State. The article names the following Russian Catholics and pro-Catholics : P. Kozlovskii, S. Svechina, Z. Volkonskaia, N. Gogol', V. Pecherin, I. Gagarin, M. Lunin, P. Chaadaev.

Marie Sémon, The nostalgia for Beauty or the expression of the Sacred in the prosaic secular text. This paper discusses a specific phenomenon of Russian prose which till now attracted but little attention of critics: the frequent irruption of Christian religious element (Orthodox services. Gospel) into secular texts, in the guise of dynamic and dramatical factor - that we call here nostalgia for superessential Beauty. Why this constant recurrence of marriage of the contraries: secular / Sacred? Is it a simple realistic reflection of a strongly christianized civilization faithfully mirrored by the novel (the writer-painter of byt, representing his characters in a church)? The purely esthetical fascination of the writer himself or the quest for God by means of the Sacred? Each of the examined texts displays the sensitiveness of its author to Christianity and, on the other hand, typical aspects of Russian religious mentality fascinated by the splendor of Byzantine liturgy.

Catherine Bielik, Saltykov-Shchedrin and religion. It is strange to note the lack of interest in Saltykov-Shchedrin and the reactions that he awakens: in most cases as hackneyed as the stereotyped personality ascribed to him. However, a careful perusal of his works reveals not only an extremely complex character but also and above all, the fact that while denouncing social wrongs, he was especially preoccupied with the connection between these wrongs and conventional ethics. He based himself solely on Christian principles which had been taught to him since childhood and in this light he attacked the state and social structure and fought ugliness borne of amorality and lack of ethics. To the end of his life, Saltykov-Shchedrin proclaimed the necessity of religious and therefore moral education and of faith ruling everyday life and not only expectation of the other world. In his opinion, it is such faith that would enable human beings to resist evil and attain complete humanity.

Inès Müller De Morogues, Leskov's attitude to schismatics. It was unavoidable that Leskov, passionately interested in history and religious problems, should devote his attention to schism which was the subject of fiery polemics between conservatives and radicals in the 1860's. On basis of his personal knowledge of Riga communities without priests and after having investigated their schools, Leskov rejects the theory of the radicals as to the revolutionary potentialities of schism. In this respect, among other arguments, he stresses the profound dissensions that prevent schism from constituting a real social force. On the other hand, while denying the validity and the reasonableness of schism on the religious level, he refuses to minimize its importance and influence and advocates tolerance, creation of schools for schismatics and promulgation of fair laws.

Georges Nlvat, Religious aspects of Russian atheists. Russian atheism appeared suddenly without the stage of free-thinking and without being really prepared by "Voltairianism". In the 1860's, a generation of unbelieving fanatics springs up. Their bible, Chcmyshevskii's novel, Chto delat' ? (What is to be done?) is filled with biblical parables. A Russian atheist seems often to be a believer "upside down". Chekhov's story, "Na puti" (On the road) traces a portrait of this generation. Acceptance of Darwinism as "scientific faith" involves also religious characteristics. Better than others, Dostoevskii expressed the ambivalence of a Russian atheist who wants to "kill God". The article studies the case of Pryzhov, author of Russia of taverns, fierce exposer of obscurantist aspects of Orthodoxy of his time, one of the characters of Dostoevskii 's novel, Besy (The devils).

Grzegorz Przebinda, The reception of Vladimir Solov'ev's thought in Germany and German-speaking countries, (1889-1953). In this article, we endeavor to describe the reception of the thought of the Russian philosopher Vladimir Solov'ev (1853-1900) in Germany and in German-speaking countries. As the subject is a vast one, we had to restrict ourselves to the period 1889-1953. Mention is made here of various University works, of books and articles devoted to Solov'ev that appeared in periodicals, and of discussions in the 1920's and in the 1930's. The 1945-1953 period appears as quite significant in the history of the reception of the philosopher's thought since he prepared the ground for many current analytical works. Finally we note the lack of a German synthesis work on Solov'ev.

Alessandra Crainz, The religious itinerary of Zinaida Hippius. The religious itinerary of Zinaida Hippius connected with revival of interest for religion in Russia at the end of the nineteenth century, acquires a mystic aspect reflected by her poetry. It lead to the creation of Religious philosophy meetings which she contributed to found. Christianity played an essential part in her conception of the world. She saw in it an absolutely positive force that had totally changed the perspectives of humanity. Nevertheless, the attitude of Hippius towards Church was a critical one because she coasidcred that historical Church could not incarnate universal Christianity. It is only the lacerations of the war and of the October revolution that modified her attitude in this respect. Faced with the suffering of what she viewed as the martyred Church, she considered that all criticism should be abolished and unconditional support given to religion.

Anatolii Levitin-Krasnov, The popular saints in Russia. Father Ioann Kronshtadtskii. It is the saints that constitute the strength of a Church. In the eighteenth century, Petersburg had known the blessed Kseniia. The article speaks of another popular saint of Petersburg, Father Ioann Kronshtadtskii (1829-1908). He left two texts: My life in Christ and Extracts of my diary. His vast renown, his pastoral action, his gifts as a healer, the attacks directed against him indicate the important place he occupies in popular piety during the second half of the nineteenth century and until now.

Kirill Fotiev, Biblical studies in Russia in the twentieth century. Contrary to the opinion commonly adopted in the West, biblical studies in Russia attracted learned theologians before the Revolution and after 1945 when certain theological schools that had been closed after the Revolution, could resume their activity. The Imperial biblical society and professors of theological academies in the second half of the nineteenth century had already completed translations of the Holy Book, Old and New Testaments from original languages into Russian. An enormous work of translation of the Holy Book into languages of peoples of Central Asia and Siberia was executed in the Theological Academy of Kazan. Russian specialists of biblical studies in emigration - in the first place Bishop Kassian (Bezobrazov) and Prof. A.V. Kartashcv - largely introduced the principles of philological analysis and biblical criticism in biblical science. Their methods and the conclusions they arrived at are now fully accepted by the new generation of specialists in biblical studies in the theological schools of Soviet Union.

Jutta Scherrer, From Marxism to idealism : a new interpretation of Bulgakov. Before formulating his own religious philosophy - one might even speak in this respect of theology - Bulgakov, gradually forsaking Marxism, devoted for a time his efforts to the elaboration of a Christian social project outlined herewith. He considered that, at the time of the 1905 Revolution, Russia was faced with the task of defining a "Christian policy" based on democratic and socialist claims of the liberation movement. Bulgakov's articles written with this object in view purport to dissociate Socialism from Marxism and to stress the eminently Christian message pertaining to Socialism.

Mikhail Agursky, The millenarian dimension of the Bolshevik Revolution. The problem of religious roots of the Bolshevik revolution has been discussed before, for example by Berdiaev, Besançon, Sarkysianz. However, they all regarded this problem only within the framework of the history of ideas. An attempt has been made here for the first time to demonstrate that the Bolsheviks' original success would have been impossible without the direct support of wide religious segments of the Russian people, mainly peasants. The most important driving religious force of the revolution was Russian millenarianism, which was a repetition of what seems to have been forgotten by history - mediaeval peasant rebellions. The first wave of anti-religious terror after the revolution was mainly waged by peasant millenarians who were extremely hostile towards the ruling Church. The Bolsheviks wanted to exploit this force from the very beginning ; they gave it the possibility to develop freely, but when it fulfilled its destiny, they suppressed it mercilessly.

Véronique Lossky, Man before God in Lev Shestov's and Marina Tsvetaeva's works. Marina Tsvetaeva's and Lev Shestov's roads only crossed episodically in Paris but the itinerary of both of them is made of torments and interrogations so that their approach in respectively poetry and philosophy seems akin. Both of them interrogate other creative minds to try and define their exceptional spirit and their attitude to God. Shestov addresses himself to other writers' works and Tsvetacva to her friends, the poets and through them to her own poetry. In their opinion, creation is a march along an abyss and at the same time a love relation between the creator and his work. They adopt a "reverse" moral, that of Beatitudes, and endeavor to extricate God from the disguise in which men, institutions and Churches dress Him up. The art of both presents strict requirements ; it has the power of vocation and this explains their vehement refusal of cliche and evidence concerning God Himself. They are both convinced that the creator is called upon to accomplish in life his relation of privileged love for his work and at the same time his likeness to God, since God has created him in His own Image. It is within this meaning that the two creators are the worthy heirs of a 1000 years of Russian Christianity that we are celebrating now.

Nikita Struve, S. Bulgakov and the Jewish problem. Sergej Bulgakov, the greatest religious Russian thinker of the twentieth century expressed four times his ideas as regard the Jewish problem: in 1906, he is indignant because Marx reduced the problem to a "matter of money"; in 1915, he approves the idea of the return of Jews to Palestine; in 1921, he blames the Jews for their massive participation in the Bolshevik power and the destruction of the Russian soul; finally, in 1941, he condemns vigorously the national-socialist racism and repression. In Russia, in the future, the "voluntarist" Jew and the "passive" Russian should live together, conscious of their necessary complementary character while awaiting the execution of Pauline promise according to which, at the very end "all Israel will be saved".

Marc Raeff, The emigration and the "New City". In the light of the religious renaissance of the Silver Age and of their experiences in war, revolution, and civil war, many emigres found their way back to the Russian Church and Orthodoxy. Intellectuals among them - more particularly I. Bunakov- Fondaminskii, F. Stepun, G. Fedotov, Mother Maria (Skobtsova) - founded a Circle dedicated to an active, Christian effort at remedying the material and spiritual misery of their fellow emigres. Their journal, Novyi grad, 1931-1939, was the forum for the elaboration and dissemination of their views on the major events of the day - Great Depression, Popular Front, Spanish Civil War, developments in the USSR. Their critique of both the bourgeois-capitalist and totalitarian (bolshevik, nazi, fascist) systems, and their advocacy of a socially committed "Christianization of life", make of them the predecessors of the Christian Socialist movements after World War II.

Nicolas Lossky, Repercussions in the West, and in Russia of the twentieth-century Russian theological revival. The twentieth-century Russian theological revival is a heir to several trends that appeared in the nineteenth century: translation into Russian of the Philocalia, the Russian "religious philosophy" and the rediscovery of the patristic literature. In the twentieth century this revival produces two trends : the heirs of religious philosophy on the one hand and the patrologists and patristic theologians on the other. These two trends are complementary, especially insofar as their repercussions in the West are concerned. The meeting with the West takes place first of all in Prague, then in Paris and in England. In Prague, the Seminar of N.P. Kondakov plays an important part. In Paris, the foundation of the Institute of Saint Sergius and the creation of the Fraternity of Saint Photius have greatly contributed to this meeting. In England, Russian orthodoxy and Anglicanism meet within the framework of the Fellowship of Saint Alban and Saint Sergius which had been organized in the 1930's. In USSR, after studies made in underground groups, the "Parisian" theology is at present officially recognized more and more as the authentic Russian theology of the twentieth century.

Marc Raeff, Georgii Florovskii historian of Russian religious culture. Priest, philosopher and historian Father Georgii Florovskii completed his studies in emigration. The experiences of revolution and civil war, as well as the impact of Western thinkers and of a Christian, personalist philosophical anthropology, laid the foundation for his rejection of historical determinism and of all utopianism in social and philosophical speculation. His major historical work, Puti russkogo bogosloviia, rooted in this philosophy and using a contextualist approach, marks a watershed in Russian intellectual history and its historiography. The paper briefly points out the major concepts and contributions of the seminal book.

Patrick Sériot, Rome, Byzantium and language policy in USSR. This article describes the present day Soviet interpretation (1984) of the opposition between the Orthodox and the Roman Catholic Churches on the social and linguistic plan. Its object is not to compare the discourse and historical facts but to study how an argument of linguistic type is utilised to justify the thesis of Soviet linguistic policy. The argument is based on different treatment of local languages by the Catholic Church (imposition of Latin as the only language of cult) and the Orthodox Church (respect of local languages, in particular of the Slavic language), the continuity between the present day Soviet territory and the ecclesiastical Byzantine jurisdiction (for instance : Moldavia or the Soviet-Polish border), and the popular character of Orthodox religion. This discourse of reappropriation of national history is at the centre of the question of Russian identity.

Alexis Berelowitch, The empty place of God. This article endeavors to identify the emergence of Christian moral values in recent Soviet literature. It notes that it is often by means of cultural heritage - in particular that of the nineteenth-century philosophical novel - that the present day Russian intelligentsia discovered faith and religion. In this connection the article refers to the works of V. Rasputin, V. P'ecuh, S. Kaledin, B. Vasil'ev. It concludes by formulating the idea that Christian values - under the cover of universal values - have penetrated into the Soviet official world. A good example of this is the use of the terms "repentance" and "charity" in the political vocabulary of the perestroïka.

Alexandre Bourmeyster, The believer as viewed by scientific Atheism. Scientific Atheism based on the statement of Marx: "Religion will disappear as Socialism will develop" aimed at forming the "New Man", a producer freed from religious prejudice and able to understand his place in the edification of Communism. This reducing vision of man had disastrous consequences in the field of production itself. Hence arose the necessity to look for "reserves of production" in the human factor, the spirituality, in short, the universal values transmitted by religion. The perestroïka registers this paradoxical change: the believer, till then considered by supporters of Atheism as going to be shaped becomes a subject, an indispensable interlocutor.

Valentin Rasputin, Contemporary Russian literature and the millenary tradition. The ten centuries that separate us from the baptism of Russia represent half the Christian history. The Nestor chronicle tells us how Prince Vladimir of Kiev chose the religion. But in reality it is only Eastern Orthodoxy that suited a Russian, that could and did bring him to maturity. The Russian nineteenth century and its prolongation - Russian emigration - are profoundly imbued with Christianism. The "Legend of the Great Inquisitor" has defined the evil that took hold of our society in the twentieth century. Russian Church could not influence the catastrophic development of Russian history. Nevertheless, Russian Church is now our hope. Memory and spirit are what our society needs most.