Contenu du sommaire : La variation graphique et les rectifications de l'orthographe française (1990) sous la direction de Nina Catach

The Linguistic Status and the Management of Orthographical Variation What makes language unique is the fact that, despite the heterogeneous nature of its realised forms, its structures remain fundamentally homogeneous. The status of variation is to be found in all sectors of the language, both spoken and written. There are phonetic and phonemic variants, lexical and syntactic variants, grammatical variants, variants of speech register, orthographical and typographical variants. In written language, variation is linked to the principles that underlie writing systems in general, and to the notion of invariants. It can be found at various functional levels : I. In the use of writing principles ; II. Graphemic and morphonographic variation ; III. Functional variation linked to the polyvalent nature of certain graphemes ; IV. Variation and Page Layout (especially in dictionaries). Variation appears just as much in total as in partial homonymy. It is a factor that encourages flexibility and progress, because it helps the management of language development.

Orthographical Variations in French : System and Arbitrariness in Modern Synchrony French orthography cannot be enclosed in a norm that would hinder its evolution, but its arbitrariness is no more acceptable. The norm must be distinguished from the system. The latter can be apprehended through a certain number of formalisable regularities. We intend to show that the same underlying regularities are to be found in the analysis of the graphemes ph, th and ch on the one hand, eau on the other hand.

The problem of Spelling Variants, Past, Present and Future Modern French is remarkable not only for its extraordinary and long-standing stability, but also for another characteristic : its diversity and variation. While the latter is readily accepted and considered as normal in oral usage, it remains almost unheard of or is disregarded in normalised written usage. However, it continues to exist nonetheless, and it must be dealt with. If we look at dictionary entries, it would seem that the lexical items most affected by spelling variation belong the "outer reaches" of the vocabulary : archaisms, popular, scientific and technical terms, loan-words, etc. In 1971, we were able to identify over 8,000, taken from various dictionaries (and even sometimes from the same dictionary) of 36,00 words on average. Even in the everyday vocabulary, we can find whole sections in which variations concerning the use of accents, the hyphen, the plural of compound words and double consonants are rife. As the vocabulary expands, so does the proportion of spelling variants, thereby causing difficulties for the user. When in doubt, we consult a dictionary : but which dictionary should we consult ? This "laxist" tendency could become dangerous, now and in the future, if it is not carefully controlled, by eliminating useless variants and introducing more modern variants based on a solid analysis and on current spelling tendencies. The question remains of how to put these principles into practice. The best way would be to follow the example of the Dictionary of the Academie française, which indeed most modern dictionaries do follow. If there are two spelling forms, the first one, which appears in the alphabetical order of the dictionary, will be not the most important. In the case, of a new orthography, the new form is first of all proposed alongside the old one with an observation such as : "We also write/we now write...", etc. In the following editions, the new orthography is given first, in alphabetical order, the old one following or given as a cross-reference. In this way, both forms become familiar to the user. Lists of normalised variants can be drawn up and published and used as preferential forms ; the old forms continue to exist as variants. This principle of long-term, gradual change, guided the Report on the Rectifications of orthography (December 6th, 1990), and their method deserves to be followed and imitated today. By gradually changing the spellings of words, we can reduce the proportion of uncontrolled variation, which causes the most problems in the everyday vocabulary.

Spelling Variants in the new Petit Robert 1993 The wish to control variants in the latest edition of the Petit Robert is not only to make the reader's task easier, but also proceeds from a sense of our responsibility as far as orthographical development is concerned : observation of the past and the present, and a logical anticipation of the future.

The Treatment of Orthographical Variants in Larousse Dictionaries, and more particularly in the Petit Larousse Spelling variation in dictionaries is both a representation and a construction. It is a representation of the hesitations of language when an oral signifier has to be put into a written form, and also of the fluctuations that the comprehension of a stereotype can bring about in the morphosyntax of an item. It is a construction because it stems from decisions concerning the arrangement of lexical items. In this way, variation should be read at a high level (the different forms proposed and their corollaries), but also at a low level (the neutralisations brought about by the arrangement of the article).

The image of the Word in the TLF : 25 years of history I. The TLF, a non-normative corpus : In the first volumes of the TLF, the spelling of the main entry was chosen by one editorial team, whereas the article devoted to "orthography" under the entry was written by another. It was difficult to take objective decisions on the matter, given the huge volume of data available. II. Norms : Then came the gradual realisation (thanks to the works of R. Thimonnier and N. Catach) that orthography was not necessarily synonymous with chaos. Spelling norms for the main entry were drawn up, and the authors of the articles on "Orthography" were given their say (and their right to veto) in the matter. III. The Conseil supérieur de la langue française : 1. We were grateful to have our norms recognised by this official body. However, by then, the TLF was almost finished ; 2 . Then we realised that a second problem existed : not all spellings could be accounted for by the rules we had drawn up. We tried, as best as possible, to apply the rules while considering each word individually, rather like the doctor who gives each patient a personalised diagnosis. The choice of a spelling for the main entry was a question of careful dosing, and of finding the right balance between the application of our rules and the individual profile of each word. 2 . Then we realised that a second problem existed : not all spellings could be accounted for by the rules we had drawn up. We tried, as best as possible, to apply the rules while considering each word individually, rather like the doctor who gives each patient a personalised diagnosis. The choice of a spelling for the main entry was a question of careful dosing, and of finding the right balance between the application of our rules and the individual profile of each word.

The Reception of English words in the French Press : Propositions for the Harmonisation of English loan-words The use of foreign words in a French text raises problems, some of which involve spelling. Not all foreign words that appear in newspapers will necessarily become part of the language : far from it. However, they do pose problems for spelling that must be dealt with. From a corpus of neologisms, we examine the reception of various English words as used in a Parisian daily paper, and the problems they pose for French-speaking journalists and correctors. Then, taking as a model English loan words already present in French dictionaries, and examining the main tendencies and principles of the French orthographic system, we propose a number of solutions that could be adopted for the spelling of these words.

Spelling Variants in exotic words The graphic integration of words borrowed from languages written in the latin alphabet can be done in a simple way. But, when they come from languages written in different scripts, an adaptation is necessary. We would like : 1. to examine in view of what principles — or what whims — such an adaptation has been realised. 2. to propose some possible adjustments.

Electronic Dictionary of hyphen words This study focuses on the problem of the hyphen in French spelling. It is based upon lexical data laid out in the form of an electronic dictionary, organized according to the principle of data bases (records and fields), which means that each entry is coded in explicit terms, both formally (flexion, variants, etc.) and semantically : 17,000 hyphenated words are thus described. This lay-out lends itself to a more precise analysis of spelling. In particular, it brings into relief the correlations between the use of the hyphen and the morphological structure of compound words (over 300 types are represented) ; it appears that the possibilities of normalization and harmonization depend on word patterns. Agglutinated forms are not always to be preferred, and there is no reason for the hyphen to be systematically discarded : the ambivalence of the sign (halfway between union and separation) reflects the intrinsic duality of certain forms of composition.

Dialogue markers — Use of Capital Letters in Titles As forty years of working as a printing corrector led me to expect there are numerous differences in the guidelines laid down in various typographical treatises, grammars, etc. This study examines the rules as set out in the Code typographique (1983), the Lexique des règles typographiques in use at the Imprimerie Nationale (1971), Gouriou's Memento typographique (Hachette, 1973), the Dictionnaire abrégé de typographie (in Nouveau Dictionnaire des Difficultés du français, de J.-C. Colin, Hachette-Tchou, 1970), the Dictionnaire des difficultés du français by J.-Y. Dournon (Hachette, 1990), etc. I. Dialogue markers : We will attempt to draw a simple "code" of the different procedures in use. II. Capitals : In the case of geographical names, the rule is explained, and, in the seven examples quoted, there are no less than four discrepancies : — les Iles Britanniques — les îles Britanniques — l'Amérique Centrale — l'Amérique centrale — le Comtat Venaissin — le comtat Venaissin — le Pays Basque — le Pays basque We will try to establish how such discrepancies occur, and propose a set of logical rules. Moreover, I have carried out a study among professional correctors from the main publishing houses, and their "in-field" experience helps to understand how difficult it is to put rules into practice.

About graphic improvement in general language and technical words From whatever point of view one observes the fantastically complex reality of language, it becomes obvious that the counterpart of the variation tendency present everywhere, essential basis for the constant renewal, the adaptability to change and the necessary evolution of the system that is tongue, is that the standardization. The intrinsic standardization operates discreetly upon the psychosemiological system underlying the mecanism allowing for the construction of discourse, of meaning, and in the end of the verbal communication. Our reflection deals with the material aspect of the linguistic sign. The long history of spelling reforms exemplifies in a striking fashion the real need for standardization of both the graphic system as such, and the larger sphere of writing practices. Graphic variation is of course submitted to the semantic variation, that of the lexical elements which vary from one linguistic community to another. In Québec French, the graphic variation is specifically distinct in reference to the word borrowing process from the English language and the relatively restricted weight of its community within the French entity, the francophonia. evolution of the system that is tongue, is that the standardization. The intrinsic standardization operates discreetly upon the psychosemiological system underlying the mecanism allowing for the construction of discourse, of meaning, and in the end of the verbal communication. Our reflection deals with the material aspect of the linguistic sign. The long history of spelling reforms exemplifies in a striking fashion the real need for standardization of both the graphic system as such, and the larger sphere of writing practices. Graphic variation is of course submitted to the semantic variation, that of the lexical elements which vary from one linguistic community to another. In Québec French, the graphic variation is specifically distinct in reference to the word borrowing process from the English language and the relatively restricted weight of its community within the French entity, the francophonia.

The Conseil international de la Langue française and Orthography On two consecutive occasions, the CILF devoted long working sessions to the problem of orthography : firstly, when a report on the Thimonnier project was requested by the Education Ministry and the Académie française ; and secondly, when a number of lexicographers were brought together at the behest of CILF president Joseph Hanse in order to reduce the number of discrepancies both in and between major dictionaries. These two substantial reports were not followed by any immediate effect, in spite of their being well accepted by the other French-speaking countries. However, the reports paved the way for the recent rectifications of French orthography, proposed in 1990 by the Conseil supérieur de la Langue française. lexicographers were brought together at the behest of CILF president Joseph Hanse in order to reduce the number of discrepancies both in and between major dictionaries. These two substantial reports were not followed by any immediate effect, in spite of their being well accepted by the other French-speaking countries. However, the reports paved the way for the recent rectifications of French orthography, proposed in 1990 by the Conseil supérieur de la Langue française.

On a Political Initiative Concerning Orthography In 1989-1990, an attempt to introduce more regular spelling forms was carried out at the request of the Prime Minister. The way in which this was done was quite new. The immediate results seemed to indicate that the enterprise had been a failure ; however, five years later, we would rather the tempted to interpret it as a success. Was the reform carried out in the right way, or were mistakes made ? Is there any further scope for this kind of action, which saw the collaboration of political authorities, linguists, and the Académie française ? And what about the establishment of a committee for the harmonisation of dictionaries ?