Contenu du sommaire : Les fondements des politiques étrangères des Etats européens

Foundations of German Foreign PolicyThe German post-war foreign policy consists of a gradual return to the international arena. From “a political dwarf to an economic giant” in the 1960's, Germany has become a mainstay of the European Union. A reunified Germany is now taking part to the maintenance of peace in international operations, and is trying to revive its relations with Eastern Europe. Some of its leaders are seeking a permanent membership at the UN Security Council. However, its foreign policy is still highly tributary of its past. Since the Reich's aggressive and hegemonic political era, the German public opinion has rejected the military and all the political leaders since 1945 have been opposed to a German unilateral stand and have reasserted their will for a European strategy.

Sentenced to Never-Ending Neutrality ?Ten years after joining the European Union (EU), Austria has lost part of its autonomy in foreign policy. It is often isolated at the heart of Europe, whereas the public support to the EU is very low. The country has the potential to dominate as an “active player” by increasing its multilateral cooperation, especially in terms of security and defence. But the public commitment to the country's military neutrality and its opposition to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization are an obstacle to this kind of initiatives. For its societal model is going through a deep crisis, the civil society is hanging on to neutrality as a fundamental expression of its national identity, which it earned quite recently in the post-war period.

The Hungarian Foreign Policy at the Beginning of a New PhaseThe three main goals of the Hungarian foreign policy, defined in 1990, are no longer — partially or entirely — valid. After joining the European Union (EU), Hungary faces a new geopolitical and institutional situation and as a result must re-evaluate its political influence and its freedom of action, learn how to adapt to the workings of regional institutions like EU and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and elaborate new goals on complex topic like the status of abroad Hungarian minorities. The Hungarian policy of neighbourhood and the working of the regional institutions are also to be redefined as a result of frontier countries recently gaining membership to the EU.

New Challenges for Poland's Foreign PolicyPoland has been at the crossroad of the major events of the contemporary European history : fall of the Berlin Wall, collapse of the prominent neighbour Soviet Union, active participation of the enlargement of the European Union (EU) towards the Eastern side, which resulted in Poland recently gaining membership in EU and NATO. Numerous challenges now face Poland's foreign policy. Among others is the reinforcement of the link with the Franco-German couple, recently undermined by the war in Iraq, the maintenance of the transatlantic relationship and its role of increasing awareness of the EU on the situation of Ukraine and Byelorussia. The central geopolitical position of Poland can explain some of the criticisms commonly heard at Warsaw vis-à-vis great European powers.

Slovakia After his European Union Membership : Balance, Stability and AdequacyWhen it joined the European Union, Slovakia reinstated the European cultural and political environment, and when it joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Slovakia became a member of the transatlantic security structures. These two phenomena are bringing us to redefine the Slovakian foreign policy. Firstly, Slovakia is choosing a policy of balance between the EU and the NATO, and refuses to oppose Europeanism to Atlanticism. Furthermore, it is contributing to stability noticeably that of the EU's neighbouring countries (Ukraine, Balkans...). Lastly, Slovakia dramatically put its influence into question as far as international relations are concerned, and consequently managed to better meet the balance between its expectations and its means.

Who Makes Czech Foreign Policy ? Internationalists, Europeanists, Atlanticists and AutonomistsContrary of some of its neighbours, the major orientations of the Czech foreign policy have barely evolved since the end of the Cold War. The formulation of the foreign policy is still elaborated by an opaque elite dominated by the two Vaclav, “Europeanist” and dissident Havel and neoliberal and “atlantist” Klaus. Even though this balance of power can be confusing, it enabled Czech Republic to gain membership to European Union and NATO. The Communist Party, still vividly alive, has eventually played the third party role, indirectly resulting in the maintenance of good relationship with both U.S. and European Union. A mission increasingly difficult as regards as the recent conflict in Iraq and the European referendum, in which Czechs have been required to clearly side.

Cyprus : a Foreign Policy in Atypical Context for the European UnionThis article suggests a comparison between the Republic of Cyprus' foreign policy, and that of the “Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus”, not recognized by the international community, both evolving in an original asymmetric rivalry. These policies are mostly based on the ruling of the Cypriot issue, and highly tributary of the nationalist telling and the image of victim stemming from it. Even though Mehmet Ali Talat's coming to power at the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is a fresh start for more liberal and multilateral policies, they are unlikely to be strikingly innovative, especially because of the struggle for domestic consensus, the weight of the Turkish institutions and the personalization of the power.

Spain Between Atlantism and European Pathway, End of a Foreign ConsensusIn Spain, to ease the transition from a dictatorship to a democratic regime, the various political forces have established a “consensus” on foreign policy, on the name of higher national interest. These past years, this policy has burst into pieces, as foreign policy became a bone of contention between the two parties PP and PSOE. According to Franco's supporters and PP, Spain should promote an alliance with the U.S., whereas PSOE considers the European pathway as the only significant for Spain to create a community of interests. The borderline between national and foreign policy is becoming increasingly blurry ; the management of identity and territorial issues depends on which direction Spain undertakes for its foreign policy.

The Greek policy of solving problems through regional and international institutionsGreece has actively tried to give an international aspect to its national problems concerning the continental delimitation of the Aegean Sea and Cyprus' independence, and presented their resolution as a way to tackle the Turkish military superiority. The United Nations, joined by the European Union, is the core element in the internationalization of the Greek conflicts. But in an atmosphere of crisis within the EU, Greece cannot merely rely on giving a European aspect to its political issues anymore. Narrow relations with European countries, Russia, the United States of America, and the southern states of the Mediterranean Sea and the continuation of political contacts with Turkey remain indispensable elements.

The foundations of Italian Foreign PolicyWhat is Italy's foreign policy based on ? What are its causes and its permanent historical features ? Various factors appear to be influencing the definition of the peninsula's foreign policy, which is usually defined as a moderate power, marked by a “relative weakness”. The country's foreign policy can be partly justified by the particularities of the domestic political system, the country's history, and its energy and military. Two axes of action have been favoured since World War II : the European construction and the relationships with the United States.

“Great Pond” Europeanisation ?After fifty years of isolationism and national pride, which characterized the regime of dictatorship from 1933 to 1974, Portugal has regained the desire to renew its historical and cultural relations with the rest of the world, and particularly with the European Union. The country has developed even closer relations with Spain, recognising that both countries are sensitive to the same values and historical heritage, and expressed their common ambition to be involved in the European Union and, more recently, in the Mediterranean region. Portugal's foreign policy is now global and is directed toward Europe, the transatlantic relations and Portuguese-speaking countries as well. Though some isolationism reflexes linger, the system of democracy and the period of “adaptation to European standards” have influenced the Portuguese policy, enabling it to be more universal.

Denmark's New Super Atlanticism : A Geopolitical InterpretationThe recent participation of Denmark to the war in Iraq is a good example of Prime Minister Fogh Rasmussen's tighter links with the U.S. This “super atlantist” turn can be understand both as a pragmatic move seeking diplomatic benefits and a reaction against past history, allegedly characterized by Danish « humble adaptation ». To be considered into the European Union framework, the “super atlantist” attitude of Danemark, one of the strongest supporters of the E.U. enlargement, is raising concerns. The ambiguous situation of the Danish foreign policy lies in balance between the European Union and the U.S., or how to move closer to one without being discredited by the other.

The European Common Foreign and Security Policy : the Finnish Point of ViewAs the European Union (UE) plays a predominant role in the elaboration of its members' foreign policy — peace on the continent is a direct result of this — two of its components, namely the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) and the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) must be combined with NATO missions and be increasingly more involved in security matters. That's the acknowledgement of Finland, a country whose turn to preside over the UE is a matter of few months. Though Finland is not a NATO member, the country has reaffirmed the part played by the Alliance in Europe and the need for the EU to improve its decision-making process in foreign affairs. With the Baltic countries joining the EU, the geopolitical situation has changed and the Finnish neighbouring policy is strongly oriented toward Russia, which contributes to promote the relations between that country and the EU.

Irish Design of Foreign Policy and International RelationsFor quite a time, Ireland has put aside the traditional way of conducting foreign affairs consisting in the development of special bilateral relationships with some countries, and instead has followed a resolutely multilateral orientation, illustrated through its active participation to the European Union and the United Nations. This foreign policy approach consists in a firm internationalist engagement especially strong in foreign aid and an acute conscience of the interdependence of states inherited from its past history as a small island state. Another crucial political goal is to make the peace process sustainable in Northern Ireland through implementation of the Good Friday Agreement.

Foundations of the British Foreign PolicyGreat Britain's ambiguous attitude towards European Union combined with efficient presence in the institutional communities annoy many in Europe. Nevertheless, its diplomatic decisions are not related to any random circumstances but are based on long-term views. Four major trends in the British foreign policy can be identified : a favourable stand for unilateralism as opposed to the current attempt to build a multipolar world ; a vigorous nationalism ; a perception of the EU as a need and as an influential arena ; a great importance dedicated to the Commonwealth and to other topics related to development. Nonetheless, those foundations have been undermined by the conflict in Iraq as the British realized that their Atlantic faithfulness may be at their disadvantage.

Estonian Conception of Foreign Policy and International RelationsSecuring its national independence has always been in the central purpose of Estonia's foreign policy. Its participation to Iraq war is consequently a major decision in its foreign policy, as the USA is the main guarantee for the security of the country. Besides, now as a member of the EU, Estonia has witnessed a change in the nature of its relations with Russia, even if some tensions remained. Moreover, the neighbouring policy is a way for the country both to achieve its national objectives in the field of foreign affairs and to take part in the regional power policy. Ukraine, Moldavia and Georgia can see in Estonia an example to follow in terms of reforms, transition process and adaptation to European standards, which can eventually lead those countries to integrate the EU.

Values, Interests and Influence of the Latvian Foreign PolicyWith regards as its membership to the international organizations, to the European Union and North Atlantic Alliance Organization, the two goals set by Latvia have been successfully achieved. Those achievements mark an important period in the development of the country, reaching a level of security that has never happened in the past. Latvia can develop economically, now that common threats against the security of the State are almost non-existent. Among others, this context is beneficial to elaborate a more complex and better-grounded Latvia's foreign policy. Its main goals in matter of foreign policy for the five years to come are the reinforcement of what has been achieved and of the influence on the international scene, in order to promote its own values and interests.

Lithuania's New Foreign Policy AgendaWithin the European Union (UE) and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Lithuania can now contribute to globalization and global security. Building security will be based on a fair integration of the European area and its surrounding countries, with democracy and the rule of law as core principles. The reconstruction of EU neighbor states (often economically in dire strait) must now be addressed by a joint action involving EU and NATO. Those two organizations should not only team up, in order to strongly and quickly answer world issues, but should also create favorable conditions to enhance population development once their military intervention is over.

The Presence in Africa of a Buffer State : From Neutrality to a Moral DiplomacyAfter gaining its independence in 1830, the role played by Belgium as a buffer state between European belligerent countries will last for more than a century. At the same time, the country starts to implement a colonial policy, first, in the Belgian Congo, and then in Rwanda and Burundi. After World War II, the first claims for independence arise and Belgium meets them with cynicism. This approach will trap the country in a colonial quagmire whose consequences, such as the genocide in Rwanda, will be a trauma. With the concern to improve its image, Belgium chooses now to take the path of a foreign policy ruled by moral values. Moreover, the Belgians are very positive towards the European project, which they perceive as a answer to the issues affecting their national identity, and in which they can possibly be a bridge between Northern Europe and Mediterranean countries.

Luxembourg's Foreign PolicyLuxembourg's foreign policy is highly determined by its history and geography. Such a small state cannot measure its strength against the surrounding large ones. In its foreign policy, Luxembourg focuses on an effective multilateralism approach and the call to respect rights and values shared by the Europeans. Its will to strengthen international solidarity in a globalizing world makes it a state that abides by the UN recommendations in the matter of the public assistance to development (the amount of the financial contribution was set to 0.85 % of the GDP in 2005). Luxembourg concentrates most of its diplomatic efforts on the European Union sphere. The small state has a clear picture of the predominance of the French-German relations in the EU construction and consequently on the international relations.

The Foreign Policy of Netherlands : Between a Moralizing Attitude and the Protection of their InterestsOne aspect remains unchanged in the foreign policy of Netherlands that is a moralizing attitude from a country that seems to favor a moral victory over a concrete one. In the stage of globalization, Netherlands are resolute to defend the interests of a “small average power”, which is strong enough to have a real influence, but also small enough to benefit from a international legal framework to regulate the political power. Netherlands engage in multilateralism, 21st century version of Realpolitik, mainly through European Union, Northern Atlantic Treaty Organization and the United Nations in order to achieve both interests and idealistic goals.